c While the relationship between within-host heartworm prevalence and mosquito rarefied richness was not significant (F(1, 16)=4.342, P=0.054, R2=0.213), a similar positive trend was found. Suburban sites had significantly lower D. immitis prevalence than did undeveloped field sites (Z=2.925, P=0.010). No relationships were noted between within-mosquito and within-host heartworm prevalence. He has served on the AHS Executive Board since 2016. Prevalence Maps: Is Heartworm In My Area? Elife. Ae. Letters above the bars denote significant differences. We analyzed entire mosquito bodies for the presence of D. immitis DNA; because of this, we were unable to distinguish between infected and infectious mosquitoes. 2014;11:325670. Despite high rates of urbanization and ample examples of vector-borne diseases transmitted by multiple species, the effects of urbanization-driven mosquito diversity losses on disease transmission has not been well explored. Google Scholar. Becker B, Leisnham P, LaDeau SL. Changes in weather patterns. Heartworm preventives are available only by prescription from veterinarians. No relationships were noted between within-mosquito and within-host heartworm prevalence. The first test compared heartworm prevalence between suburban, natural woodlot and natural field sites with all neighborhood ages collapsed into a single suburban category (three total treatment levels). Can Your Zip Code Make Your Dog More Susceptible to Heartworm? ProHeart 6 Pharmacovigilance Data. We also determined the best predictor of host-level prevalence among models including within-mosquito infection, mosquito . 2013;29:4608. https://orcid.org. CAS Parasitology and serology of free-ranging coyotes (Canis latrans) in North Carolina, USA. 2020 Feb 27;57(2):608-614. doi: 10.1093/jme/tjz190. Statistical analyses Thatsalot. Before Given that anthropogenic land-use change alters the diversity and composition of mosquito assemblages and is occurring rapidly worldwide, greater understanding of the role of vector diversity in multi-vectored diseases is critical and will have global impacts. The 2019 AHS Heartworm Incidence map, as well as maps from 2001 to 2016, can be downloaded at heartwormsociety.org/veterinary-resources/incidence-maps. Trends Parasitol. While a previous study has investigated dog heartworm prevalence within mosquitoes in an urban to rural gradient [21], the effects of urbanization-driven mosquito diversity changes on the pathosystem have not been previously considered. statement and FOIA Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal 2016;158:197200. Would you like email updates of new search results? An ideal system for further examining the effects of mosquito diversity on vector-borne disease transmission is that of the dog heartworm, Dirofilaria immitis. To help veterinary professionals, shelter personnel, and pet owners understand heartworm trends in their areas, the American Heartworm Society (AHS) began tracking U.S. heartworm incidence in January 2002. ProHeart 12, a moxidectin extended-release injectable formulation for prevention of heartworm (Dirofilaria immitis) disease in dogs in the USA for 12 months. Mean prevalence and standard error of the mean are presented for each land-use type. We compared within-mosquito heartworm infection across land-use types by Kruskal-Wallis and likelihood ratio tests. eCollection 2022. Am Nat. We thank Paul Labadie, Tommy Pleasant, Hannah Jenkins, Cole Keenan and Dakota Palacio for their work on this project. There is effective preventative medication that protects dogs from becoming infected with D. immitis, but these medications are by prescription only, requiring not only the cost of the medication but also the cost of routine veterinary care, presenting a financial barrier for some pet owners. Recognizing that mosquito diversity changes as suburban neighborhoods grow older [10], we stratified our mosquito sampling efforts in suburban areas by neighborhood age, creating a chronosequence with which to test our predictions. A significant positive correlation was noted between within-host heartworm prevalence and (. The effect of urbanization is well known for certain mosquito species of interest, particularly the container-breeding Aedes [7, 8], but has only recently been examined in the context of effects on mosquito species assemblages. Terando AJ, Costanza J, Belyea C, Dunn RR, McKerrow A, Collazo JA. We also found that the probability of an individual mosquito being positive for D. immitis differed between land-uses (LRT statistic =6.40, P=0.041). PubMed Using zip code level data acquired from dogs in a local shelter, we performed linear regressions of within-host heartworm prevalence by within-mosquito heartworm prevalence as well as by three mosquito diversity measures. At each of the suburban and undeveloped sites, we sampled overnight with CDC light traps (JW Hock Co., Gainesville, FL, USA) baited with 1kg of dry ice (solid CO2). While heartworm incidence dropped slightly in some parts of the country in 2019, more veterinarians overall noted an upward trend in heartworm incidence over the previous 3 years than a downward trend. We calculated the bias corrected maximum likelihood estimate (MLE) for point estimation of the infection rate of each heartworm-positive mosquito species using PooledInfRate add-in software for Excel [34]. Phone Number. The Pandemic Effects on Heartworm Prevention. Dowling Z, Ladeau SL, Armbruster P, Biehler D, Leisnham PT. 2014;4:40933. 2013;27:4219. 2013;50:76472. Article All 50 states have had confirmed cases of heartworm since the disease's discovery back in 1856. 2021 Sep 9;14(1):464. doi: 10.1186/s13071-021-04958-1. dogs spending more time outdoors) or through changes in vector assemblages. C'EST POUR AUJOURD'HUI ET POUR DEMAIN. McTier, T.L., Kryda, K., Wachowski, M. et al. The focus of studies on primary vectors rather than communities of vectors has led to a general gap in knowledge as to how vector diversity contributes to disease transmission in multi-vectored pathosystems, even though the limited empirical and modeling investigations that have occurred suggest vector diversity can increase transmission [5, 6]. Of respondents participating in the AHS survey, 26% reported seeing more heartworm cases in 2019 versus 2016, while 16% reported a decline in their practice areas. 20132017 American Community Survey. However, there are numerous examples of disease systems in which an assembly of vector species are responsible for pathogen transmission (e.g. Currently available preventives are listed below; as new products become available, updates will be posted at heartwormsociety.org. Instead, our results suggest a positive relationship between mosquito diversity and disease transmission, as has been found in the limited existing studies investigating the effects of diversity within disease systems with multiple vectors [5, 6, 16]. Heartworm disease is a serious disease that results in severe lung disease, heart failure, other organ damage, and death in pets, mainly dogs, cats, and ferrets. Mosquitoes of the southeastern United States. United States Census Bureau. Menu. Annu Rev Entomol. A similar study of D. immitis prevalence within mosquitoes in an urbanized area of Oklahoma, USA found that urban sites had significantly higher heartworm infection rates than rural sites and implicated Ae. The zip code of the surrendered or stray dog was noted at shelter intake, allowing analysis of trends at the scale of zip code level or larger. The invasive mosquito species Aedes albopictus: current knowledge and future perspectives. We approached this question by sampling mosquitoes across Wake County, North Carolina, USA, analyzing the mosquitoes for the presence of D. immitis DNA, and comparing heartworm prevalence rates within the mosquito to heartworm prevalence rates within domestic dogs. Land use influences mosquito communities and disease risk on remote tropical islands: a case study using a novel sampling technique. Due to local climate and rainfall, some areas of the country have mosquitoes all year round, so the risk for dogs to contract heartworms is definitely higher than for dogs in hotter, drier areas of the Southwest. 525 S 300 E PROVO UT 84606-4849. To our knowledge, this study represents the first explicit investigation of the effects of urbanization-driven mosquito diversity changes on dog heartworm transmission within both the vector and the host. We also determined the best predictor of host-level prevalence among models including within-mosquito infection, mosquito diversity and abundance, and socioeconomic status as variables. Disclaimer, National Library of Medicine Our results suggest that decreases in mosquito diversity due to urbanization lead to decreases in dog heartworm prevalence. Download : Download full-size image Fig. 2011 Nov;26(4):178-85. doi: 10.1053/j.tcam.2011.09.005. and transmitted securely. Her big dream as a child was to be Vector-borne diseases likely a higher risk this year. Int J Environ Res Public Health. Parasit Vectors. On one hand, heartworms maintain a stubborn hold in the U.S., with the southeastern U.S. leading the nation in incidence. Article albopictus, versus in natural areas, where bites come from a more diverse mosquito assemblage in which a given species may or may not be a competent D. immitis vector. To help reduce the transmission of heartworm disease in animals, the AHS partnered with the Association of Shelter Veterinarians (ASV) in 2018 to develop recommendations for the safe transport of heartworm-positive pets (, Compliance is the leading factor associated with downward trends in heartworm incidence. Identification and geographical distribution of the mosquitos of North America, north of Mexico. This could be due to increased preventative medication use in higher income areas [22], or to variation in other factors such as the amount of time a dog spends outside and therefore amount of potential mosquito exposure time. columbiae, Cx. In 2001, the national estimate for heartworm-positive dogs was just under 900. 2009;54:46987. Zip code 84604 is located in Provo, Utah. albopictus, the Asian tiger mosquito, which constituted 41.9% of the overall abundance, followed by Culex salinarius and Aedes vexans with 13.9% and 8.3%, respectively. By Sarah Ashley Published May 16, 2019 All 50 states have had confirmed cases of heartworm since the disease's discovery back in 1856. Copyright 2023 Today's Veterinary PracticeWeb DesignbyPHOS Creative. These data contained the results of the heartworm test performed at the time of intake as well as the zip code of the prior owner or location of capture. Each dot represents the center of a zip code containing at least one feline heartworm antigen positive. Dogs at higher risk of contracting heartworm disease from mosquitoes in OC, officials say. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. KruskalWallis test was chosen due to the non-normal nature of the data, and Dunns test for multiple comparisons with Bonferroni correction was utilized to identify which land-uses differed in their heartworm prevalence. However, since mosquitoes are responsible for transferring the parasite from dog to dog, some areas do pose a higher risk than others. According to theAmerican Heartworm Society, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas and Tennessee are the top five worst states when it comes to heartworm diagnosis, in that order. -, Bockarie MJ, Pedersen EM, White GB, Michael E. Role of vector control in the global program to eliminate lymphatic filariasis. Med Vet Entomol. Large dog relinquishment to two municipal facilities in New York City and Washington, DC: identifying targets for intervention. PubMed Within-mosquito Dirofilaria immitis prevalence varied by land-use type (KruskalWallis 2=8.555, df=2, P=0.014). Burkett-Cadena ND. 2011;238:3117. J Am Mosq Control Assoc. High prevalence of canine heartworm, Dirofilaria immitis, in pet dogs in south Texas, USA, with evidence of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes contributing to transmission. American Heartworm Society also announces new officers, board members NEW ORLEANS From exploring American Heartworm Society Announces Program Details for 17th Triennial Heartworm Symposium. Heartworms are a serious and potentially fatal disease that mainly affects dogs, cats and ferrets. Heartworm cases on the rise this time of year. Similar to our results with within-mosquito prevalence, using the presence or absence of D. immitis within mosquitoes, we did not see a significant relationship to within-host prevalence by zip code (t(8.22)=0.941, P=0.374). Each 96-well plate run included one reaction with DNA extracted from a known negative laboratory-reared mosquito combined with a single laboratory-reared D. immitis L3 for the dual purpose of both a positive control and a sensitivity check to ensure D. immitis could be detected down to the presence of a single larva. Apperson CS, Engber B, Levine JF. The recipient address information is provided for your reference. The 2019 map (. A brief introduction to mixed effects modelling and multi-model inference in ecology. 3). Suburban areas had lower within-mosquito heartworm prevalence and lower likelihood of heartworm-positive mosquitoes than did undeveloped field sites, although no differences were seen between suburban and undeveloped wooded sites. Although the response is likely different for diseases transmitted by one or few species, mosquito diversity losses leading to decreased transmission could be generalizable to other pathogens with multiple vectors. Feel free to come in any day between the hours of 10:00am and 5:00pm to meet our animals and discuss your application with staff. 2022 May 3;10:872812. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.872812. Because the goal was to determine simple presence or absence of D. immitis within the mosquito pools, CFX Maestro software (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA, USA) was used to visually assess for DNA amplification and therefore presence of D. immitis DNA within the sample prior to 30 cycles. In addition to suburban sites, we sampled in three natural habitat sites: Schenck Memorial Forest at North Carolina State University (NC State), NC States Equine Educational Unit and NC States Lake Wheeler Beef Unit. He has held various roles with Boehringer Ingelheim since leaving private mixed-animal practice in 1993. LaDeau S, Leisnham P, Biehler D, Bodner D. Higher mosquito production in low-income neighborhoods of Baltimore and Washington, DC: understanding ecological drivers and mosquito-borne disease risk in temperate cities. Srisuka W, Sulin C, Sommitr W, Rattanarithikul R, Aupalee K, Saeung A, Harbach RE. This model was significant, with prevalence positively correlated with diversity and negatively correlated with median household income (DogHWPrev=0.6454 ShanDiv1.035*105 Income2.524; F(2, 15)=6.725, P=0.008, R2=0.473). Top Companion Anim Med. Springer Nature. DGE-1746939. Relative suitability of Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti in North Carolina to support development of Dirofilaria immitis. volume13, Articlenumber:12 (2020) After extraction, we quantified the DNA concentration using the Qubit 2.0 Fluorometer (Invitrogen, Life Technologies Corporation, Waltham, MA, USA), accepting any sample with greater than 0.01ng/l of DNA for further analysis. We then tested the null hypothesis that \(\sum p_{i} = p\) using a likelihood ratio test, utilizing the Holm method to correct for multiple comparisons when identifying which land-uses differed in their probabilities. 2003;40:78594. However, since mosquitoes are responsible for transferring the parasite from dog to dog, some areas do pose a higher risk than others. Ferraguti M, Martnez-de la Puente J, Roiz D, Ruiz S, Soriguer R, Figuerola J. 2017;31:4454. Scavo NA, Zecca IB, Sobotyk C, Saleh MN, Lane SK, Olson MF, Hamer SA, Verocai GG, Hamer GL. Interestingly, our previous work in Wake County did not find any effect of socioeconomic status on mosquito diversity measures [10], so the effect of socioeconomic status detected in the present study is likely due to its impact on host-level factors. By using this website, you agree to our Mosquitoes are a diverse family of flies that can be pests and vectors of medical and veterinary significance, transmitting a wide array of viruses, protozoans and parasitic nematodes to both humans and animals. Within-host heartworm prevalence was well modeled by mosquito diversity and household income, further underscoring the effect of mosquito diversity while also illustrating the importance of socioeconomic status, possibly due to differences in administration of preventative medications. We acquired median household income by zip code from the 20132017 American Community Survey using U.S. Census Bureaus American FactFinder tool [37] to investigate whether D. immitis prevalence within dogs and socioeconomic status is correlated. Although the response is likely different for diseases transmitted by one or few species, mosquito diversity losses leading to decreased transmission could be generalizable to other pathogens with multiple vectors. Percent parous mosquitoes and percent Dirofilaria immitis-positive mosquito pools were compared for data from the 2015 trapping season. Just under 6000 veterinary practices and shelters submitted data from more than 5.5 million pets. Generally, yes, but the parameters are usually a bit broader. 2003;127:3751. While we did not detect any differences in heartworm prevalence within mosquitoes based on neighborhood age, it could still be affecting prevalence within the host indirectly by decreasing mosquito diversity, as mosquito diversity metrics decrease as suburban neighborhoods age [10]. suggests that there has been little significant. According to the AHS survey, 82% reported that they follow the AHS guidelines on prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of heartworm disease, while more than half of practitioners utilize resources on the AHS website. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error, Species-level heartworm prevalence by land-use type. We performed two KruskalWallis tests to compare heartworm prevalence across land-use types in R 3.5.0 statistical software [35]. Make an appointment. This study contributes to better understanding of the effects of urbanization and the role of vector diversity in multi-vectored pathosystems. A tale of two city blocks: differences in immature and adult mosquito abundances between socioeconomically different urban blocks in Baltimore (Maryland, USA). Parasit Vectors. Silaghi C, Beck R, Capelli G, Montarsi F, Mathis A. Parasit Vectors. Just under 6000 veterinary practices and shelters submitted data from more than 5.5 million pets. Wild host densities are not assessed in this study, but could play an important role in the heartworm transmission dynamics for domestic dogs, particularly if wild hosts that typically serve as primary D. immitis reservoirs are excluded from highly urbanized areas. government site. Ann Entomol Soc Am. Am J Trop Med Hyg. Mosquitoes show habitat fidelity at a much finer scale of less than 100m [28], leading to a separation of geographical scale between mosquito-level factors and host-level factors that could be obscuring some trends. JLF collected within-host heartworm data from incoming shelter dogs. We calculated heartworm prevalence within dogs by zip code in Wake County. The second test included neighborhood age categories separately, resulting in seven total treatment levels (wood, field and five neighborhood age categories as previously described). The southern megalopolis: using the past to predict the future of urban sprawl in the Southeast US. 2006;135:30314. Since sample sizes varied among species, the number of positive pools and the total number of pools tested per species are provided above each bar, Relationship between mosquito parity and within-mosquito heartworm prevalence. Thongsripong P, Green A, Kittayapong P, Kapan D, Wilcox B, Bennett S. Mosquito vector diversity across habitats in central Thailand endemic for dengue and other arthropod-borne diseases. 2013;7:e2507. R: a language and environment for statistical computing. Urbanization is occurring rapidly on a global scale and is altering mosquito communities, creating assemblages that are characteristically less diverse. Zip codes where clinics have obtained at least one positive feline heartworm antigen result. The Invasive Mosquitoes of Canada: An Entomological, Medical, and Veterinary Review. MRSB analyzed and interpreted the data and prepared the original manuscript. RT @AHS_Think12: Your pet is always at risk for hearthworms. While acknowledging these important caveats, the AHS hypothesized a conservative estimate of heartworm prevalence via the following calculations: Figure 2. The Companion Animal Parasite Council recommends pets be tested annually and protected year-round 7 Essential Reasons Every Cat Needs an Annual Vet Exam. J Vector Ecol. Cats are known to have a penchant for biting and scratching, but even the most fierce feline can Pets are beloved members of many families. It is believed this change was triggered by drier-than-normal conditions in the western U.S. in 2017 and 2018 that led to lower mosquito populations. Courtesy American Heartworm Society. We maximized the likelihood function: where \(y_{i\,j}\) is the binary response of whether pool \(j\) in habitat \(i\) was positive for D. immitis, \(n_{i\,j}\) is the number of mosquitoes in pool \(j\) from habitat \(i\), and \(p_{i}\) is the probability that an individual mosquito in habitat \(i\) is positive for D. immitis. Conclusions: albopictus as the areas primary vector [21]. Urban and suburban areas throughout much of the USA are dominated by the peridomestic Aedes albopictus, which is a competent vector of D. immitis [20]. Structure and organization of the mitochondrial genome of the canine heartworm, Dirofilaria immitis. Using zip code level data acquired from dogs in a local shelter, we performed linear regressions of within-host heartworm prevalence by within-mosquito heartworm prevalence as well as by three mosquito diversity measures. Within-host heartworm prevalence increases with mosquito diversity measures. In fact, in a2016 AHS Incidence Survey, 10 percent of canines in Mississippi tested positive for the parasite. Heartworm infection was diagnosed nationwide. Hu M, Gasser RB, El-Osta YA, Chilton NB. Given that the majority of zip codes had a within-mosquito heartworm prevalence of 0% due to our low number of positive pools, we also performed a Welchs t-test comparing the within-host heartworm prevalence by the presence or absence of heartworm-positive mosquito pools within a given zip code. Weiss E, Slater M, Garrison L, Drain N, Dolan E, Scarlett J, et al. Texas. Am J Trop Med Hyg. Rift Valley fever: an emerging mosquito-borne disease. As with the KruskalWallis test, we again performed this test for land-use type both with and without neighborhood age categories as levels within the broader suburban category. About. Unfortunately, the lack of veterinary care translates to a lack of heartworm prevention, and these pets are among those most likely to be positive, infecting mosquitoes and other dogs in the neighborhood. 1.5.0; 2018. https://github.com/arilamstein/choroplethrZip. Any dogs without heartworm test results or a designated zip code were removed from analysis. At the wooded and field sites, traps were placed at least 100m away from any habitat edge, again consistent with previous findings of mosquito habitat fidelity [28]. Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae): an experimental and natural host of Dirofilaria immitis (Filarioidea: Onchocercidae) in Florida, USA. About Europe PMC; Preprints in Europe PMC Kardos EH, Bellamy RE. Importantly, the parasite is naturally vectored by at least 25 mosquito species in the USA [20] and even greater numbers of species worldwide with varying vectorial capacities. PMC Make sure they are always protected. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. PubMed 4b). We created categories of neighborhood ages to ensure that neighborhoods of various ages were being sampled: developed before 1993, between 19932002, between 20032007, between 20082012 and from 2013 to present. Ledesma N, Harrington L. Mosquito vectors of dog heartworm in the United States: vector status and factors influencing transmission efficiency. Pet relocation. Mosquito vectors of dog heartworm in the United States: vector status and factors influencing transmission efficiency. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Lee AC, Montgomery SP, Theis JH, Blagburn BL, Eberhard ML. Privacy Of these, 832 tested positive for D. immitis, giving an average prevalence of 10.91% in domestic dogs in Wake County. 1):607. Parasit Vectors. 1961;54:44851. Article Multistate Hatch Project MS-1443/1943/USDA, Sinka ME, Bangs MJ, Manguin S, Coetzee M, Mbogo CM, Hemingway J, et al. Alabama: University of Alabama Press; 2013. PubMedGoogle Scholar. MRSB and MHR conceptualized the study and its methodology. Google Scholar. Distinguishing nulliparous from parous female Culex tarsalis by examination of the ovarian tracheation. We cannot assess spatial trends for D. immitis within mosquitoes due to low overall prevalence (Fig. A 1983 graduate of the College of Veterinary Medicine at Auburn University, Dr. Duke is the founder of the Bienville Animal Medical Center in Ocean Springs, Mississippi. Landscape Composition Affects Elements of Metacommunity Structure for Culicidae Across South-Eastern Illinois. American FactFinder. pipiens and An. Article Within-mosquito heartworm prevalence throughout the trapping season. 4.0; 2009. http://www.cdc.gov/westnile/resourcepages/mosqSurvSoft.html/. This agrees with findings from a recent study that demonstrated a negative correlation between human population size and within-host heartworm prevalence [40]. However, when analyzing the 2015 data, percent heartworm-positive mosquito pools was positively correlated with percent parous mosquitoes across the trapping season (Fig. vexans, Cx. 5. All zip codes in Wake County had some level of heartworm infection, but zip codes where mosquitoes were not sampled were omitted from visualization (denoted NA) for clarity. 2017;42:1849. Courtesy American Heartworm Society. Heartworm indicators are found in the blood of 80%-90% of dogs. Int J Environ Res Public Health. When comparing D. immitis prevalence within dogs to its prevalence within mosquitoes by zip code, no significant relationship was detected (F(1, 16)=0.511, P=0.485). PloS ONE. While the directionality of its relationship with mosquito communities remains unclear, it is evident that socioeconomic status has the ability to alter susceptibility of hosts, vector exposure, and therefore disease risk. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Dog. albopictus. In Mississippi, almost 10% of dogs tested for heartworms were heartworm positive in 2019; in Louisiana, just under 8% of dogs tested were positive. https://www.heartwormsociety.org/veterinary-resources/incidence-maps. Braks MA, Honrio NA, Loureno-De-Oliveira R, Juliano SA, Lounibos LP. J Med Entomol. Mississippi and Louisiana lead the country in heartworm infection rates The five states with the highest incidence of heartworm were Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, Arkansas, and Alabama. These results do not agree with the present studys findings of suburban areas having lower heartworm infection rates than at least the undeveloped field sites, and of Ae. Junglen S, Kurth A, Kuehl H, Quan P, Ellerbrok H, Pauli G, et al. Spatial and temporal patterns of abundance of Aedes aegypti L. (Stegomyia aegypti) and Aedes albopictus (Skuse) [Stegomyia albopictus (Skuse)] in southern Florida. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Parasites Vectors 13, 12 (2020). With regard to dog heartworm disease, this loss of mosquito diversity is associated with decreased heartworm prevalence within both the vector and the host. The results of the AHS Incidence Survey represent a mix of both bad and good news. All pools that were positive for D. immitis DNA were those of mosquito species known to be competent heartworm vectors [20], so we assume that any positive mosquito pool represents potential transmission. In addition, adherence to the AHS/ASV recommendations on animal transport by veterinarians, shelters, and rescue organizations can help minimize the chance that heartworm-positive pets moved from one part of the country to another do not become reservoirs for heartworm infection in their new homes. Acta Trop. Dogs and cats not seen by veterinarians and/or not tested for heartworms during annual veterinary visits may be infected but go unrecognized for years. Sequences were assembled using the Geneious 9.1.8 native de novo assembly algorithm and consensus sequences were generated for each sample. 2010;3:117. Rift Valley fever: an emerging mosquito-borne disease. Infection risk varies within urbanized landscapes: the case of coyotes and heartworm. -, Linthicum KJ, Britch SC, Anyamba A. Part of Any dogs without heartworm test results or a designated zip code were removed from analysis. Parasites & Vectors Testing data from thousands of veterinary practices and shelters is used to create a detailed map showing the average number of heartworm-positive cases per clinic. We found that suburban areas generally had the lowest within-mosquito heartworm prevalence, and that mosquito diversity was positively correlated with heartworm prevalence within the canine host.